Determining the Status of an Independent Contractor and Taxes Essay

Determining the Status of an Independent Contractor and Taxes - Essay Example Avoiding taxes is not the primary goal of an independent contractor but they know if they are classified as employees they suffer some consequences. Some of the consequences one suffers are that they might not be hired by the hiring firm since they these firms will be forced to pay additional expenses of treating them as employees. The aims of the firms to maximise their profit and to ensure they achieve their goals, they have to ensure that they minimise their operational expenses. For this case, if an independent contractor is classified as an employee he will never be hired by the hiring firms. (Fishman, 2006) The other reason as to why the independent contractors do not need to be classified as employees is because they will add additional tax burden to themselves by being subjected to tax. Their pay will be deducted, something they would not be experiencing if they were independent contractor. (Fishman, 2006) According to Fishman (1997), the U.S Bureau of Labour Statistics shows that in U.S.A alone, there are eight million independent contractors and in the next ten years, this number is expected to double. The use of independent contractors is beneficial companies that cannot afford to hire permanent employees especially small and medium ones. This is especially so for those companies that can not be able to employ a permanent employee for specialized function. For instance, a company engaged in international commerce can hire an attorney who has specialized in international trade as an independent contractor to provide international legal advice. This staffing approach is more affordable than employee a permanent employee and for this case due to the fact that this attorney's salary will not be taxed, then it does not mean he want to avoid paying the tax. 1 Permanent employees have been given a great deal of job security by European laws and because of these laws, the economic uncertainty has forced employers to use short-term contracts than using permanent employment. These short-term contracts are the use of independent contract and statistics shows that this tread is on the increase. In every five employees in France, one is on part-time contract; 30 percent of workforce in Britain is on temporary employment; in Spain, for every ten jobs created, seven of them are on temporary basis; and the ban on private temporary employment agencies has been lifted in Germany. These statistics shows that there is great rise in the use of independent contractors in many European countries. The use of independent contractors has become popular since it reduces costs and legal requirements imposed on termination or lay off of employment in Europe. Due to the fact that the temporary employees hired by companies under temporary employment does not mea n that they are avoiding paying taxes since they employment is being dictated by circumstances. (Templeman, 1996) Independent contractors results in cost savings which include: reduced book keeping and payroll preparations costs, avoidance of taxes, reduced fringe benefits, elimination of worker's compensation benefits, elimination of overtime pay, decreased administrative burdens and reduction in capital and maintenance costs if the independent contractors provides their own tools and equipment. (Bureau of National Affairs, 1994; Stalnaker, 1993). Even though independent contr

Gasb and Fasb Essay Example for Free

Gasb and Fasb Essay Board is to establish and improve standards of state and local governmental accounting and financial reporting that will result in useful information for users of financial reports and guide and educate the public, including issuers, auditors, and users of those financial reports. source: http://www. gasb. org/ FASB: The mission of the Financial Accounting Standards Board is to establish and improve standards of financial accounting and reporting for the guidance and education of the public, including issuers, auditors, and users of financial information. ource: http://www. fasb. org/ Similarities Differences: Both boards share the following objectives: 1. To be objective in its decision making and to ensure, insofar as possible, the neutrality of information resulting from its standards. 2. To weigh carefully the views of its constituents in developing concepts and standards. 3. To promulgate standards only when the expected benefits exceed the perceived costs. 4. To bring about needed changes in ways that minimize disruption to the continuity of reporting practice. . To review the effects of past decisions and interpret, amend or replace standards in a timely fashion when such action is indicated. The main difference between the two is that the GASB is specific to individual state legislatures and the FASB is on a federal level, so their scope is much broader. Compare and contrast GASB and FASB. Explain objectives and how they are similar and different. Describe how the modified accrual basis of accounting differs from full accrua l accounting. The Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) and the Financial Accounting Standards Board were created to establish accounting and financial reporting standards for governmental and not-for-profit organizations. The GASB for governments and the FASB for not-for-profit organizations. Governmental and not-for-profit organization financial statements serve the purpose and needs of their users. These users include governing boards, investors and creditors, taxpayers and citizens, and organizational members, donors and grantors, regulatory and oversight agencies, and employees and other constituents. Users of these statements should be able to assess an organization financial condition, compare an organization’s actual performance with the budget, determine compliance with appropriate laws, regulations and restrictions on the use of funds and evaluate efficiency and effectiveness. (Granof, 2007, pg. 13) The GASB places importance on accountability and feels that the government should be accountable to citizens. In achieving this goal the objectives of the GASB is that organizations are accountable to the citizens. This accountability insists that financial reporting information that will reveal whether current-year revenues are enough to pay current-year expenses; demonstrate whether budgets were adhered to; and mission The objective for the GASB is to set standard in accounting and financial reporting for state and local governments. These standards are to provide useful information for the users of financial reports. In achieving this goal the objectives of the GASB is that organizations are accountable to the citizens. This accountability insists that financial reporting information that will reveal whether current-year revenues are enough to pay current-year expenses; demonstrate whether budgets were adhered to; and assist users in assessing cost and accomplishments of the government organization. According to the GASB users should be able to determine the operating results of the entity for the year with the use of its financial reporting by providing information about sources and uses of financial resources, how the entity financed its activities and meet its cash requirements, and whether the organization financial position improved or eteriorated due to operations. Ensuring that financial reports allow users to determine what level and if the government entity will be able to meet its obligations by providing information on the financial condition and position, about its physical and nonfinancial resources and disclousrue of legal or contractual restrictions on resources and their risks. The F ASB’s mandate is to set accounting and financial reporting for not-for-profit organizations. The FASB determined that financial reporting should provide information that help users make decisions about the allocation of resources, assess services and the ability to continue to provide service, assess how managers discharge their stewardship responsibilities and their performance. In addition, the FASB requires that information is provided about economic resoreces, obligations and net resources of an organization, periodic performance of the organization, how cash and liquid assets are spent and its borrowing and repayment and explainations and interpretations to understand financial information. Differences between GASB and FASB is that the GASB sets standards for state and local governments while the FASB set standards for the federal government. Another difference is that GASB feels that government organizations should adhere to budget compliancy while the FASB does not place specific emphais on budgets but on managers and their manangement . The modified accrual basis is a form of accounting where expenditures are recognized on a accrual basis and cash basis. When using the modified accrual basis revenues are recognized in the period they become available and measureable. On the other hand the full accrual basis of accounting calls for the recognition of revenues and expenses when they are incurred no matter when the monetary transaction takes place.

Leadership Case Study: Virgin Group

Leadership Case Study: Virgin Group Founded in 1970 as Virgin Records, the company has expanded to a humongous organization comprising of more than 200 companies in 2007. Its business portfolio ranges from air travel, fitness centers, and mobile telephony. Since its inception, the culture and image of Virgin Group has been directly attributed to the personality and efforts of its owner and founder, the high-ranking executive and entrepreneur Sir Richard Branson. It makes no sense to delink Virgin Group from Sir Branson. In fact, the name Branson is almost becoming synonymous with Virgin Group. This essay aims to provide several aspects of Virgin group. These include the critical analysis of its organizational model, the leadership of Sir Richard Branson and eventually organizations communication. Discussion Virgin Group is made up of more than 200 companies, which employ nearly 50,000 people all over the world. The business has witnessed continual growth since it was started. The revenues reached a record mark of 10 billion sterling pounds in the year 2006. This reveals the magnitude and level of business in which Virgin Group is operating. The nature of leadership in existence in Virgin Group draws many features from the personality of Sir Richard Branson. The business philosophy postulated by Sir Richard Branson believes that the ultimate results of customer satisfaction and shareholders gain is the responsibility of every individual. He believes that if the staffs are kept happy then the customers are going to be happy meaning that the shareholders will be happy too. Consequently, the management of Virgin Group does not fall in to any particular model. It has a unique management structure whose characteristics do not fit those of the existing models. The amalgamation of concepts make s it distinctive. A critical review reveals that the success witnessed by Virgin Group can be attributed to the uniqueness of its management styles. Management Theorists like F Taylor first created the concept of scientific management. This scientific concept postulates that there are six main features of management, namely; experiment, observation, selection, standardization, and training. Scientific philosophy of management expects that rewards and employee compensation should be pecked on performance and co-operation. Although some facets of this theory are outdated, some of its features are still applicable in the business structure of modern times. As a good illustration, Virgin group may be having what appears as a relaxed working environment but some features of scientific management are in application. Such aspects of scientific management used in Virgin Group include training, selection, and payment pecked on results. Some employees are compensated because of their outstanding entrepreneurial ambition and innovative thinking. Outstanding performance in Virgin Group is not only measure by the amount of financial input an employee has brought but also creativity and ability to think outside the box. Another model of management is bureaucracy, which sees the organization of business as one unit. The pioneers of this school of thought believed that family practices could not be delinked from the organization. Therefore, there a need to merge family goals with those of the entire organization. Organizational goals of Virgin Group cannot be dissociated with those of Sir Richard Branson. This is enough reason to conclude that the management style in the organization has some elements of bureaucracy in leadership. Max Weber first formulated this kind of management approach. The impact of entire society is given considerable attention by the management. In this model, the organization is considered as an integral part of an amorphous society. Despite having some draw backs, this model has found its way in to the Virgin Groups management style. In a bid to meet the needs of the society it is serving, virgin management give priority to the impact, its strategies will have on the society. This is the reason as to why Virgin Atlantic, an airline company under Virgin Group, has been on the frontline on the crusade for environmentally friendly jet fuel. Furthermore, there is an element of administrative theory in the management of Virgin Group. Propounded by Henry Fayol, administrative theory view management as a chronological process comprising of planning, organization, training, and coordination of functions. This model represents the transitional theory between the traditional and modern models. It is characterized by rigid and mechanistic tenets. Virgin Group has a little bit of these management principles. It has deviated from it by allowing liberalized management at departmental level. However, at the departmental levels, there is need to advance the principles of management. The thoughts of employees should remain to be customized to suit these principles. The management of Virgin group with a heavy weight is contingency approach. The decision-making and plans executions are done with close reference to the problem at hand. This has seen the group attain notable milestones in streamlining its management, which eventually translates in to revenues. In this management model, the dynamics of business environments is appreciated. It recognizes the fact that different environments require different management approaches. Concisely, it is true to argue that Virgin Groups success story of many years is a factor of many things including it optimal management model. The group has been able to amalgamate the presets of every model to suit its present needs. What is emerging vividly from this global organization is the fact that the efficacy of management is determined by its ability to move away from conventional and rigid requirements. Moving with the trends in the market has been proven beneficial in optimization of profits. From the descriptions given above, it is evident that Virgin Group leadership is a transformational. In transformational leadership the management looks beyond the compensation to the employees. The model, which is in use at Virgin Group, explores the inner factors, which enhance performance of employees through motivation. On contrary to transactional model, which look at compensation alone, transformational leadership looks at way of achieving high-level loyalty and commitment from the followers. The brand in the name of Virgin was founded in 1968. Since then it has grown beyond borders and become a worldwide product. Its venture into many different industries is a true reflection of success. Sir Richard Branson is the present chairperson of the group. He is well known for his stylish but competitive leadership skills. Many analysts and scholars attribute the success of Virgin Group to the creative leadership skills of Branson. In the process of expansion, he took over several risky ventures in a more to diversify and improve his business. In most of his business plans, he focused on minute segment of a specific market and provided quality products or services. This approach allows for creation of small monopolistic markets with high profit margins. One major contributor to Bransons success story is his ability to lead people in exploring innovative and profitable ventures. Therefore, the leadership style depicted by Branson is a topic to be investigated in the following disc ussions. The kind of leadership philosophy advocated by Branson has been infiltrate into the entire company. Sir Richard Bransons leadership style falls in the category of transformational. He has an outstanding ability of bringing out the best out of humanity. Interpersonal and relational skills possessed by Branson are impeccable. He has close touch with the day to day activities of various companies within his group. The most common feature that has made him achieve great milestones in business development is the ability to motivate and rally fellow partners in pursuit of a business opening. If the recent acquisitions are taken as an illustration, he managed to convince fellow stakeholders in adoption of new strategy. In his ventures, he looks for people who are outgoing and willing to start new businesses. His capacity building nature has made him an admirable leader of modern business. His focus spans beyond the orthodox perspective of employees where the management expects the workers to perform to deserve compensation. The interest of Branson surrounds asking the question as to whether a partner or employee is optimizing his or her capacity. He is interested also with people who are willing to take risks and the best in their tasks. For a long time, he has succeeded in bringing out the best out of his staff, a core character of transformational leader. There is no doubt about the fact that Bransons success since 1970s is directly attribute to his attitude towards management of a team. In his approach, the barrier existing between the employees and management is broken. In fact, many people working with him approaches business issues with a philosophy of achieving through innovative thinking and not adhering to the preset rules. Because of the ideologies propagated by Branson, all participants in the organization share similar values. He formulated his own style of leadership, priding himself on integrating the employees in to his style and seeking their thoughts on ways of improving value to customers. Employees are expected to internalize these values and respond in accordance to them. Integration of corporate values in leadership strategies means that there is little interference by external forces. Nevertheless, Sir Bransons approach does not mean that the employees are entirely dependent on the chairmans thoughts. They are equally accountable of their actions like fellow employees under transactional leadership. In order to motivate his employees, Branson and his management team, especially human resources management department have systems of enhancing commitment of employees through bonuses, stock options and profit sharing, and internal promotion wherever possible. Apart from Sir Bransons input in the success of virgin Group, there is a contribution of organizational culture in the company. Organizational culture existing in Virgin Group in fairly complex. The Group serves more than 100 companies operating separately in the industries which are not entirely related. The common feature within ever company in the group is the glamorous Virgin Brand. The brand remains unchanged in all companies operating in different businesses. This is a similarity, which puts a heavy responsibility on each department or division to positively represent the brand. The image reveals an overall image of quality and innovation inherent in the group. Through the creation of an exclusive brand, the company has been able to consolidate and maintain desirable loyalty levels among the customers. The diverse business portfolio evident in Virgin Group businesses is helpful in building and maintaining loyalty in various industries. This is the main reason as to why the company has witnessed high levels of success. The managers in the company employ the concept of creativity to encourage employees to enhance their contribution to the group in whatever level of hierarchy. They discourage the scenario where employees sit back to execute instructions. Employees have the capacity of producing cutting-edge products, which the whole company will be able to deliver to the market. They can also formulate ways of improving efficiency in the company. This is an outstanding feature of Virgin Group. Every individual has a say when it comes to products development. The management style in application at Virgin Group encourages members of staff to be competitive. This will eventually build a desire in the hearts of employees to see the company succeed so that they can be recognized as contrib utors to new and innovative business model. There is no clear cut between management and leadership within Virgin Group. Transformational leadership emanates from executives and top managers in the company. There are harmonized goals set by Sir Richard Branson and fellow company executives. Various companies within the group will work towards achieving those goals. These ambitious goals range from utilization of new technology, expansion in international markets, joint venture with other existing companies and loyalty among customers. Goals formulated at this level of management are communicated to every employee in the company. This is a beneficial strategy, which gives every employee a task to accomplish in fostering the groups mission. The senior management implores the employees to output their skills in such a way that they are going to complement the company. The notion behind this effort is to advance the philosophy that the entire benefits of the group will eventually lead to individual gains for every person involved. The contribution in the group will ultimately result in rewards for managers, employees, shareholders, executives, and customers alike. One desirable feature of Virgin Group is its organizational structure. Through its structure the company has succeeded in overcoming the challenges related to expansion. An expansive organization like Virgin Group must explore ways of handling the massive information within the company. Through its flat organizational chart, Virgin Group Limited has been able to handle it expansive business portfolio with much ease. The reduction of horizontal chain of command means that interdepartmental communication is enhanced. As the level of hierarchy moves down, the lower levels of management tend to concentrate more keenly on the management of the company. Although leadership is always encouraged among the managers, it requires some levels of strict management to make sure that the task has been accomplished. Different divisions within the company have different management function. At Virgin Group, managers have several goals of wide scope. Because of the fact that different divisions of the company are specialized in their operations, well-trained and qualified mangers are required to manage it effectively. In most cases, managers employed by the company have a firm background in their sector of specialization. They must also prove that they are capable by showing a successful record of accomplishment. It is the sole responsibility of managers within Virgin Group to ensure that day-to-day operations needed to keep the division running are executed effectively. Organization is a vital ingredient in the success of Virgin companies. Since the group in an amorphous company comprising of several companies, organization is very critical in putting together the processes. To start with, the company has many goals to be achieved like expanding the global presence and building of customer loyalty. The top executive are responsible for determining these goals and making them available to the entire company. The same executive must ensre that these goals are achievable for them to be received well by employees. However, caution should be exercised to ensure that the employees are not underutilized. Challenging goals are important for the employees to feel that they are engaged in meaningful tasks. Organization of these goals within the division will ensure that specific targets are made. Every division have separate and specialized goals aimed at increasing market share and improvement of product and services. As the hierarchy advances to the junior staffs, goals become more precise and short lived. The targets set at implementation levels are easily achievable because they are very specific. These specific goals are formulated by division managers with close reference to those of the entire group. This system of information transfer enables the company to remain on track on the journey to meeting the targets set by executives. Virgin is a living evidence for the fact that this kind of organization is a major prerequisite for business success. Breaking down of general goals in to actionable points is a desirable feature revealed in Virgins organization. A healthy and workable organizational structure witnessed in Virgin Groups businesses is attained with many varying strategies. Transformational leadership is one of these strategies that have seen the company attain great heights of success. This strategy enables people of diverse backgrounds and ability to share a common goal. Through working together, a team can combine its members efforts and work towards achieving common goal. Transformational leadership gives everyone an equal chance to output his or her ability without reservations. A critical review of Virgin Group business reveals that its versatile and innovative workforce is due to the transformational leadership in place. This is in contrast with transactional leadership in which employees are compensated according to performance. The draw back with this kind of leadership is that it breeds greedy employees whose goal will be to amass rewards as much as possible. Conclusion In conclusion, there are many things to be learned from leadership and management of Virgin Group Limited. The company has cut itself a niche in various industries. It has also proven that all things are possible with dedication and commitment. Through the able leadership of its Chairman, Sir Richard Branson, the management team has come up with a unique formula of managing large scale businesses like Virgin Group. To a large extend, the success of Virgin Group is directly attributable to the input of Sir Branson. He has succeeded in opening a new chapter of management, which deviates from conventional methods. His liberal and all accommodating approach is desirable. There is a formidable blend between management and leadership. A critical review of these two elements reveals that there is no clears cut between the two: a feature that has worked well for the company. Chemical bonds: An introduction Chemical bonds: An introduction Introduction A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms brought about by a sharing of pair of electrons between to atoms or a complete transfer of electrons. There are three types of chemical bonds: Ionic, Covalent and Polar covalent. In addition chemists often recognize another type of bond called a hydrogen bond. Among all these three chemical bonds the strongest bond is covalent bond and weaker from covalent bond is ionic bond and weakest among all is polar bond. The main condition for a covalent bond to be formed is that both atoms forming covalent bond should have equal electro negativity or nearly equal electro negativity. For example: carbon can form covalent bond with oxygen and carbon but a covalent bond between carbon and nitrogen is never possible because there is high difference between electro negativity of carbon and nitrogen. Explanation Chemical bond A chemical bond is an interaction between atoms or molecules and allows the formation of polyatomic chemical compounds. A chemical bond is the attraction caused by the electromagnetic force between opposing charges, either between electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a dipole attraction. The strength of bonds varies considerably; there are strong bonds such as covalent or ionic bonds and weak bonds such as dipole-dipole interactions, the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding. Since opposite charges attract via a basic electromagnetic force, the negatively-charged electrons orbiting the nucleus and the positively-charged protons in the nucleus attract each other. Also, an electron positioned between two nuclei will be attracted to both of them. Thus, the most stable configuration of nuclei and electrons is one in which the electrons spend more time between nuclei, than anywhere else in space. These electrons cause the nuclei to be attracted to each other, and this attraction results in the bond. However, this assembly cannot collapse to a size dictated by the volumes of these individual particles. Due to the matter wave nature of electrons and their smaller mass, they occupy a very much larger amount of volume compared with the nuclei, and this volume occupied by the electrons keeps the atomic nuclei relatively far apart, as compared with the size of the nuclei themselves. In general, strong chemical bonding is associated with the sharing or transfer of electrons between the participating atoms. Molecules, crystals, and diatomic gases— indeed most of the physical environment around us— are held together by chemical bonds, which dictate the structure of matter. * Main types of chemical bonds In the simplest view of a so-called covalent bond, one or more electrons (often a pair of electrons) are drawn into the space between the two atomic nuclei. Here the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positive charges of both nuclei, instead of just their own. This overcomes the repulsion between the two positively charged nuclei of the two atoms, and so this overwhelming attraction holds the two nuclei in a fixed configuration of equilibrium, even though they will still vibrate at equilibrium position. In summary, covalent bonding involves sharing of electrons in which the positively charged nuclei of two or more atoms simultaneously attract the negatively charged electrons that are being shared. In a polar covalent bond, one or more electrons are unequally shared between two nuclei. In a simplified view of an ionic bond, the bonding electron is not shared at all, but transferred. In this type of bond, the outer atomic orbital of one atom has a vacancy which allows addition of one or more electrons. These newly added electrons potentially occupy a lower energy-state (effectively closer to more nuclear charge) than they experience in a different atom. Thus, one nucleus offers a more tightly-bound position to an electron than does another nucleus, with the result that one atom may transfer an electron to the other. This transfer causes one atom to assume a net positive charge, and the other to assume a net negative charge. The bond then results from electrostatic attraction between atoms, and the atoms become positive or negatively charged ions. All bonds can be explained by quantum theory, but, in practice, simplification rules allow chemists to predict the strength, directionality, and polarity of bonds. The octet rule and VSEPR theory are two examples. More sophisticated theories are valence bond theory which includes orbital hybridization and resonance, and the linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method which includes ligand field theory. Electrostatics is used to describe bond polarities and the effects they have on chemical substances. Valence bond theory In the year 1927, valence bond theory was formulated which argued essentially that a chemical bond forms when two valence electrons, in their respective atomic orbitals, work or function to hold two nuclei together, by virtue of system energy lowering effects. In 1931, building on this theory, chemist Linus Pauling published what some consider one of the most important papers in the history of chemistry: â€Å"On the Nature of the Chemical Bond†. In this paper, building on the works of Lewis, and the valence bond theory (VB) of Heitler and London, and his own earlier work, he presented six rules for the shared electron bond, the first three of which were already generally known: 1. The electron-pair bond forms through the interaction of an unpaired electron on each of two atoms. 2. The spins of the electrons have to be opposed. 3. Once paired, the two electrons cannot take part in additional bonds. His last three rules were new: 4. The electron-exchange terms for the bond involve only one wave function from each atom. 5. The available electrons in the lowest energy level form the strongest bonds. 6. Of two orbitals in an atom, the one that can overlap the most with an orbital from another atom will form the strongest bond, and this bond will tend to lie in the direction of the concentrated orbital. Bonds in chemical formula The 3-dimensionality of atoms and molecules makes it difficult to use a single technique for indicating orbitals and bonds. In molecular formulae the chemical bonds (binding orbitals) between atoms are indicated by various different methods according to the type of discussion. Sometimes, they are completely neglected. For example, in organic chemistry chemists are sometimes concerned only with the functional groups of the molecule. Thus, the molecular formula of ethanol (a compound in alcoholic beverages) may be written in a paper in conformational, 3-dimensional, full 2-dimensional (indicating every bond with no 3-dimensional directions), compressed 2-dimensional (CH3-CH2-OH), separating the functional group from another part of the molecule (C2H5OH), or by its atomic constituents (C2H6O), according to what is discussed. Sometimes, even the non-bonding valence shell electrons (with the 2-dimensional approximate directions) are marked, i.e. for elemental carbon.C. Some chemists may a lso mark the respective orbitals, i.e. the hypothetical ethene−4 anion (/C=C/ −4) indicating the possibility of bond formation. Strong chemical bonds Typical bond lengths in pmand bond energies in kJ/mol.Bond lengths can be converted to by division by 100 (1 Ã… = 100 pm).Data taken from Bond Length(pm) Energy(kJ/mol) H — Hydrogen H-H 74 436 H-O 96 366 H-F 92 568 H-Cl 127 432 C — Carbon C-H 109 413 C-C 154 348 C=C 134 614 C≠¡C 120 839 C-N 147 308 C-O 143 360 C-F 134 488 C-Cl 177 330 N — Nitrogen N-H 101 391 N-N 145 170 N≠¡N 110 945 O — Oxygen O-O 148 145 O=O 121 498 F, Cl, Br, I — Halogens F-F 142 158 Cl-Cl 199 243 Br-H 141 366 Br-Br 228 193 I-H 161 298 I-I 267 151 Strong chemical bonds are the intramolecular forces which hold atoms together in molecules. A strong chemical bond is formed from the transfer or sharing of electrons between atomic centers and relies on the electrostatic attraction between the protons in nuclei and the electrons in the orbitals. Although these bonds typically involve the transfer of integer numbers of electrons (this is the bond order), some systems can have intermediate numbers. An example of this is the organic molecule benzene, where the bond order is 1.5 for each carbon atom. The types of strong bond differ due to the difference in electronegativity of the constituent elements. A large difference in electronegativity leads to more polar (ionic) character in the bond. Covalent bond Covalent bonding is a common type of bonding, in which the electro negativity difference between the bonded atoms is small or nonexistent. Bonds within most organic compounds are described as covalent. See sigma bonds and pi bonds for LCAO-description of such bonding. A polar covalent bond is a covalent bond with a significant ionic character. This means that the electrons are closer to one of the atoms than the other, creating an imbalance of charge. They occur as a bond between two atoms with moderately different electro negativities, and give rise to dipole-dipole interactions. A coordinate covalent bond is one where both bonding electrons are from one of the atoms involved in the bond. These bonds give rise to Lewis acids and bases. The electrons are shared roughly equally between the atoms in contrast to ionic bonding. Such bonding occurs in molecules such as the ammonium ion (NH4+) and is shown by an arrow pointing to the Lewis acid. Molecules which are formed primarily from non-polar covalent bonds are often immiscible in water or other polar solvents, but much more soluble in non-polar solvents such as hexane. Ionic bond Ionic bonding is a type of electrostatic interaction between atoms which have a large electro negativity difference. There is no precise value that distinguishes ionic from covalent bonding but a difference of electro negativity of over 1.7 is likely to be ionic and a difference of less than 1.7 is likely to be covalent Ionic bonding leads to separate positive and negative ions. Ionic charges are commonly between −3e to +3e. Ionic bonding commonly occurs in metal salts such as sodium chloride (table salt). Bonds in chemical formula: he 3-dimensionality of atoms and molecules makes it difficult to use a single technique for indicating orbitals and bonds. In molecular formulae the chemical bonds (binding orbitals) between atoms are indicated by various different methods according to the type of discussion. Sometimes, they are completely neglected. For example, in organic chemistry chemists are sometimes concerned only with the functional groups of the molecule. Strong chemical bonds: Strong chemical bonds are the intramolecular forces which hold atoms together in molecules. A strong chemical bond is formed from the transfer or sharing of electrons between atomic centers and relies on the electrostatic attraction between the protons in nuclei and the electrons in the orbitals. Although these bonds typically involve the transfer of integer numbers of electron some systems can have intermediate numbers. Aromatic bond In organic chemistry, certain configurations of electrons and orbitals infer extra stability to a molecule. This occurs when Ï€ orbitals overlap and combine with others on different atomic centres, forming a long range bond. For a molecule to be aromatic it must obey Hà ¼ckels rule, where the number of Ï€ electrons fit the formula 4n + 2, where n is an integer. The bonds involved in the aromaticity are all planar. In benzene, the prototypical aromatic compound, 18 (n = 4) bonding electrons bind 6 carbon atoms together to form a planar ring structure. The bond order (average number of bonds) between the different carbon atoms may be said to be (18/6)/2=1.5, but in this case the bonds are all identical from the chemical point of view. They may sometimes be written as single bonds alternating with double bonds, but the view of all ring bonds as being equivalently about 1.5 bonds in strength, is much closer to truth. In the case of heterocyclic aromatics and substituted benzenes, the electronegativity differences between different parts of the ring may dominate the chemical behavior of aromatic ring bonds, which otherwise are equivalent. Metallic bond In a metallic bond, bonding electrons are delocalized over a lattice of atoms. By contrast, in ionic compounds, the locations of the binding electrons and their charges are static. Because of delocalization or the free moving of electrons, it leads to the metallic properties such as conductivity, ductility and hardness. Intermolecular bonding There are four basic types of bonds that can be formed between two or more (otherwise non-associated) molecules, ions or atoms. Intermolecular forces cause molecules to be attracted or repulsed by each other. Often, these define some of the physical characteristics (such as the melting point) of a substance. A large difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms will cause dipole-dipole interactions. The bonding electrons will, on the whole, be closer to the more electronegative atom more frequently than the less electronegative one, giving rise to partial charges on each atomic center, and causing electrostatic forces between molecules. A hydrogen bond is effectively a strong example of a permanent dipole. The large difference in electro negativities between hydrogen and any of fluorine, nitrogen and oxygen, coupled with their lone pairs of electrons cause strong electrostatic forces between molecules. Hydrogen bonds are responsible for the high boiling points of water and ammonia with respect to their heavier analogues. The London dispersion force arises due to instantaneous dipoles in neighbouring atoms. As the negative charge of the electron is not uniform around the whole atom, there is always a charge imbalance. This small charge will induce a corresponding dipole in a nearby molecule; causing an attraction between the two. The electron then moves to another part of the electron cloud and the attraction is broken. A cation-pi interaction occurs between the negative charges of pi bonds above and below an aromatic ring and a cation. Global Community Impact on Water Shortage: Article Analysis Global Community Impact on Water Shortage: Article Analysis MA447 Global Management Issues Taking Sides Worksheet Student Name: Jennifer R. Thomas Takings Sides Article Number and Name: Article 2.4 Can the Global Community Successfully Confront the Global Water Shortage? Work Cite: Easton, Thomas A. Taking Sides. Boston: McGraw-Hill Education Create, 2014. Print. Date: 2-21-2017 BACKGROUND What qualifications does the author have for writing the YES article on this subject? (This may also apply to quotes within the article.) William Wheeler, the author of Global Water Crisis: Too Little, Too Much or Lack of a Plan? is a reporter and contributor to The Christian Science Monitor and the Pulitzer Center, among other publications. (p.87, Easton) William Wheeler has a Masters Degree in Journalism and International Affairs from Columbia and has a background in political affairs in Africa, Southeast Asia and the Middle East and immigrant detention in New York City and Virginia. He was the recipient of the Earth Journalism Award in 2009. He partnered with Anna-Katarina Gravgaard on a report on water politics and climate change. http://www.bu.edu/cghd/files/2011/04/Disaster-Conference-Speaker-Bios.pdf When and where the YES article was first published? Does this affect its credibility? The article, Global Water Crisis: Too Little, Too Much, or Lack of a Plan? (Easton) Was published on December 2, 2012, by The Christian Science Monitor. The article was a recently published article, 2012, and William Wheeler has a good background in politics, specifically giving some focus to the politics of water, for which he received an award as noted in the article, http://www.bu.edu/cghd/files/2011/04/Disaster-Conference-Speaker-Bios.pdf What qualifications does the author have for writing the NO article on this subject? (This may also apply to quotes within the article.) Stewart M. Patrick is a senior fellow and director of the International Institutions and Global Governance Program at The Council on Foreign Relations. (p. 89, Easton) The following are a list of his expert experiences according to http://www.cfr.org/experts/international-institutions-global-governance-multilateral-institutions-un-failed-states-sovereignty/stewart-m-patrick/b5863 Multilateral cooperation, International Institutions, and Global Governance United Nations Transnational Threats Foreign Assistance Post-conflict reconstruction Stewart was a graduate of Stanford University. When and where the NO article was first published? Does this affect its credibility? The article, The Coming Global Water Crisis. What Happens When Demands for this Essential Resource Starts Exceeding Supply in many Parts of the World? (Easton), was published on May 9, 2012, in the Atlantic magazine. The author has a good knowledge and background, especially with an interest of weak and failing states. Having said that, and with the article somewhat new, I would say that the publication and the author both are credible. EFFECTIVE ARGUMENT TECHNIQUES See information at the end of this worksheet about creating effective arguments. Students are required to address the issue by exploring both articles and both sides of the argument. SUMMARY OF YES ARGUMENT POINTS SUMMARY OF NO ARGUMENT POINTS William Wheeler, the author of the yes argument, believes that supply or lack thereof, is not a real concern but that it is more about valuing water and how it is used. There is just as much water in the world now as there always has been, water supply has not decreased. The evaporation process has not changed and water is still cycled through the water cycle. Meaning that water is evaporated into the air, it then rains, in lakes, rivers and freezes in the glaciers, plants absorb it and the process starts all over. Water is being used up quicker than it can be replaced. Droughts give reason to fear a water crisis. The phrase Global Water Crisis leaves the impression that there is a major water crisis/shortage. Too much water can be just as devastating as not having enough water. Water feeds crops, powers cities, cools computer servers and is key to the manufacturing of everything from clothes to cars (p. 84) Increase in population will increase demand for water. The better a region is doing economically, the more water they demand all due to the consumption of more meat rather than wheat. Livestock, in which the meat comes from, needs more water than wheat does. Water Resource Group suggest that by 2030 almost half of the world population will be hit with a severe water shortage and by 2050, 1 in 5 developing countries will too. Water shortage is also due to too many tube wells draining the water. Human are living beyond their means, meaning that they are consuming more water than they really have available and at a higher rate than water is being replenished. Leaking infrastructure are also a reason for water shortage. Climate change, increase in global grain prices and droughts, some caused by record high temperatures, are contributing factors to water shortage. Rising sea levels can damage wall protections as well as increase the risk of coastal storms. Poorer regions will be more affected by the water shortages. Global Water shortage should be a concern of everyones not just the region or area affected by it. Climate change will increase the rate that glaciers melt off when regions depend on the glacier water as a resource at the same time that other regions, already distressed by drought, will become more distressed by increase drought. As water shortage becomes more of an issue, regions will use it as an economic source and will build dams to keep it from running off to lower land regions. They will focus on keeping as much water as they can, close to home. This will cause conflict and risk of terrorist attacks. More than 15 countries rely on hydropower to generate at least 80 percent of their electricity (p. 86) and if water shortage is not handled properly, regions could be faced with energy shortage in addition to, food supply being affected and run a higher risk of waterborne diseases. Professor Lalls believe is that water shortage is blown out of proportion and isnt really as bad as it is being made out to be. Professor Lall believes that one way of fixing the crisis is to be more aware of what crops are being grown and where these crops are being grown, reducing waste, recycle water and repurpose flood-control systems, to name a few. He also mentioned involving the government to ensure easy access to rural and urban areas as well as accessing cheap soil moisture sensors are used to improve agricultural water efficiency. Professor Lall states that everyone should be paying more for water as another way to help regulate water usage. Professor Lall states that what the U.S. needs is a policy that incorporates forecasts, trading mechanisms, options, and coordinated use of both surface and ground-water resources. (p.87) Drought in Sahel will threaten 15 million lives. Global Warming will affect global demand for fresh water versus the availability of the supply of fresh water. Population growth also will affect the available supply of water. Regions dealing with major water shortage will eventually run into issues with pollical and social instability. The planets fresh water source is about 2.5% Growing global water demand for fresh water are a result of increase in population, as it will continue to increase in the coming years, reduction in available fresh water due to the melting away of the glaciers as a result of global warming, individuals are consuming more meats over wheat, where it takes more water to feed the livestock than it does to grow wheat, and poor management of the water. Water shortage increases tension amongst regions and they begin to come territorial over their water source, leaving room for issues globally by building dams and things of the sort to keep from losing water to another region. Internationally there are only 263 water basins that are shared. Managing the water source includes stopping the leaks from infrastructures, new irrigation systems and growing crops that use less water and can withstand drought, which would improve agriculture efficiency, pricing water based on its real value and making clear the rights to water sources. CRITICAL THINKING AND REFLECTION ARTICLE-SPECIFIC QUESTIONS *Answer all of the questions listed at the beginning of Exploring the Issue for each set of articles. 1. I believe that the increased demand for future water are 100% real. Both articles bring up many points as to why the demand will increase in the near future. Those include, increase in the population, climate change increases drought in some areas while melting the glaciers in other areas, increasing the risk of hurricanes from rising sea levels and once the glaciers meltdown, there will be no more water source in the future. Water is also underpriced and as mentioned in both articles as well. It was also mentioned that management of water source is a problem. 2. I believe that moderating the distribution of water would help the water shortage but I do not believe that it is the main culprit of global water shortage. I think it is more a combination of multiple culprits. 3. No, I do believe that global warming changes the result of adverse changes in the supply of and demand for water, I believe it has a huge impact on the supply of however. Global warming will soon dry up most if not all of our water resources. 4. I do not believe that just taking any one action will avert the world global water crisis. As I have stated in the above questions, I believe that it will take an all or nothing approach. There are many pieces to the puzzle and by focusing just on one piece, the others may get worse while you think you are working to solve the crisis. 5 I have more faith in focusing on a broader approach of a better integrated water management system for a brighter future global water system than anything else. I believe being broad and giving attention to all of the factors that are attributing to the water crisis is the only way to approach the situation. EFFECTIVE ARGUMENT TECHNIQUES Acknowledge differing viewpoints This technique strengthens your argument in 3 ways: It helps you spot flaws on the opposing side. It can help you spot flaws in your own argument. It establishes your credibility as someone who can address the issue in a reasonable way and at least consider opposing points of view EXAMPLE: The installation of cameras does cost an immense amount of money. They also give no privacy to the students. (This writer is actually in FAVOR of security cameras. In the introduction, however, he raises these two arguments against the cameras to establish credibility.) WARNING! If you acknowledge a differing viewpoint, dont just say the other side has a valid point and leave it at that. Move on to the next step of rebuttal. Rebut differing viewpoints A strong argument points out the flaws in the other sides thinking using reasonable language and examples. INTRODUCTION EXAMPLE: The installation of the cameras does cost an immense amount of money. They also give no privacy to the students. However, they would be convenient for the schools security. CONCLUSION EXAMPLE: Even though the installation of cameras is expensive and offers no privacy to student, it does help the security of the school. Strategies for Writing an Effective Argument. Strategies for Writing an Effective Argument. Triton College, n.d. Web. 12 May 2014. . A 10-STEP PROCESS FOR ANALYZING AN ARGUMENT by Brian W. Carver After you have read the passage carefully, distinguishing between purported facts and opinions, answer the following questions thoroughly. What is the authors conclusion? What premises does the author provide to support this conclusion? What assumptions (unstated premises) are required for the authors argument to be valid? Do the premises seem uncontroversially true? If not, explain. Do the assumptions seem uncontroversially true? If not, explain. Are all terms in the argument adequately defined? If not, explain. Are there other facts, not discussed, that would be helpful to know in evaluating the argument? If so, explain. Does the author appeal to emotion or use words designed to influence our response? (e.g., discounts, hedges, assurances, repetition, etc.) If so, explain. Is your well-crafted version of the argument valid? That is, suppose the premises and assumptions are true, regardless of their actual truth or falsity. Ask yourself, given their truth, does the conclusion have to follow? (If so the argument is valid, if not, it is invalid.) If a clear valid/invalid answer is difficult, explain why. In your opinion, is your well-crafted version of the argument sound? That is, does it both have a valid form and have all true premises and assumptions? (If so, it is sound, if not, it is unsound.) Explain your answer. Retrieved from https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~brianwc/courses/thinking/2002fall/analyze.html

Most Effective Form of Stretching :: essays research papers

The American College of Sports Medicine defined fitness in 1990 by stating that physical fitness is â€Å"a set of attributes that people have or achieve.† (Cited in Dalgleish et al 2001)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This set of attributes can be further defined as cardiovascular fitness, muscular endurance, muscle strength, muscle endurance, motor skills and flexibility.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cardiovascular fitness involves the heart and lungs supplying the required volume of oxygen to the working muscles.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Muscular endurance is the number of contractions or the length of time a muscle can contract before fatigue occurs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Muscle strength is the maximum amount of force a muscle can generate in one contraction.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Motor skills is a general term, which covers co-ordination, speed, balance and power.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Flexibility is the range of motion (ROM) in a joint or in a series of joints. Flexibility is improved by stretching connective tissues, muscles and other soft tissue around a joint. Stretching exercises can be divided into different categories depending on the way the muscles and surrounding tissues are stretched. These forms of stretching are static stretching, dynamic stretching, ballistic stretching and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF). This report will define why athletes stretch and review current literature on each form of stretching and conclude from research which form is the most effective form of stretching. BENEFITS OF STRETCHING Stretching in sport was only used to warm athletes up before an event and cool them down after the event. Stretching was not used as a part of an athletes training programme until the benefits of stretching were recognised. Sigerseth (1971 cited in Elliot & Mester 1999) suggested that skilled performances could be improved by increasing the ROM around various joints. Performance can be improved due to stretching in three ways.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If range of motion is increased especially in throwing and racquet sports, more force or velocity can be produced. This is possible as this increases in ROM allows the throwing distance to increase and longer period of time in which force can be produced. This results in the speed of the racquet, bat or object being increased, which allows a more powerful, throw, kick or hit to occur. Examples of sports where this occurs is tennis, cricket, baseball and golf. Jobe and Moynes (1986 cited in Elliot and Mester 1999) Studied golfers and found that the higher skilled golfers had twice the range of trunk rotation compared to golfers of lesser skill.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Athletes who compete in sports where performance is judged on the aesthetics

The Roman Legacy Essay -- Ancient Rome

With the decline and fall of the western empire, the classical age of Rome came to a close as disease, warfare and corruption conspired to bring about the downfall of an ailing empire that had once conquered the known world. Where once enlightened despots had ruled a debauched and unwieldy polity, now barbarians stood over the ruins of a once thriving metropolis. In its absence a new world would arise with new values and ideals. Turning their back on a pagan past the Christian children of these wild men from the north would spawn the greatest houses of future European nobility, and when they looked back for a legacy, they would not see their ancestors as pillagers picking at the bones of a defiled Rome, but instead as its trusted guardians, partnering with the Church to carry her legacy through the â€Å"Dark Ages†. Greece, which had endured its own dark ages millennia beforehand, became the cradle of the western artistic ideal. It’s society was like none other. Organizationally, it preferred a unique form of government called democracy, when other societies around god-kings and despotic strong men. Its ambitions asserted the perfection of man, his unique place in the world. As stories became myth and myths became legends, humans (or human like) gods began to appear in the religious centres of worship. Unlike the gods of Egypt, who almost always have some animalistic component to their physiology, the Greek gods were human-like. Zeus had a human body, hands and feet; for all intents and purposes, he was the first super-man. This was an epic reversal. Where once man relegated himself to the animals, now the Greeks had placed man above the merely natural and into the realm of the supernatural. The human form was exemplified in sculptur... ...prayer books, we get illustrations of the peasant farmer at work in his fields throughout the seasons, alluding to the year round labor required to feed a near starving passel of half a dozen children. In the illuminated Bibles, we see fabulous illustrations off the fabled kingdoms of the east and wild bestiaries of exotic man-imals and creatures said to dwell in terras ingonito, daring men to venture into the unknown again and call at the courts of Pryster John, lord of all the Indias. In the Cathedrals, some of the most dramatic mathematical aspirations were envisioned in stone as towns and masons set out to trump one another with brilliant feats of engineering not attempted since the heights of Rome. This was a world trying to right itself again after the fall of the greatest empire the world had ever seen, a world many wanted to see gain a new purchase on earth.

Planning To Meet The Needs Of Learning

At my place of work – Include, we do not have ILP’s, this is because we run a twenty week, roll on roll off programme and we wouldn’t have the time. We do however set goals, at the start and during monthly reviews, using simplified paperwork.. Our sister company that teach pre- sixteen’s do, and I have looked at these documents to reflect on anything that would be transferable to my teaching and offer improvements.The role of initial and diagnostic assessments is key for producing individual learning goals. It is essential to find out exactly where the student wants to go, why they are wanting qualifications, eg for a particular course at college, and what is realistic bearing in mind their diagnostic assessments. Initially all students are tested using BKSB to find the level they are and what they might achieve with help and teaching from the Functional skills tutor. We carry out Initial Assessments, (A) and Foundation Learning agreements (B) which note c areer progression aims, some objectives, qualifications to be taken, while with us as well as other documentation gathering personal details, health, education and drug and alcohol misuse.Our Initial assessment covers previous learning experiences, learning styles, personal and social skills, health and personal circumstances as well as the support we can provide to help the student reach his goals. We also carry out a monthly review, one of the most important ways we can check how the student is performing, his progress, whether he is on track and more importantly whether he feels he’s learning, achieving his goals, and whether he feels supported in his learning. This review time, is also a time when the student can tell us what he wants and where we and he could improve outcomes.During the review we can find out how the last few weeks lessons have gone, and together we will set SMART targets, and any behavioural problems, late arrivals, not joining in class etc. are address ed and support that would be helpful, worked out together for the next month . We also discuss where he would like to go to work experience and try hard to find the correct match, as this is often a spur to his learning. After goals have been decided and any support worked out the student will sign the review sheet which is filed in their learner file, and a copy is given to the student to refer to each day, to remind them of goals and targets.After the Initial Assessment and reviews, our student profile (C) is updated (weekly) and this is used with our current session plan as a pointer as to how our students need supporting. I also carry out tutorials, usually towards the end of each unit when students discuss and work with me on any any unfinished or not understood criteria, before completing. The two sessions I have chosen, are on Independent Living (D & E). When planning sessions I must be sure that the work I set covers the criteria set by the exam board and balance this with t he needs and understanding of my students. I must also bear in mind my minimum core document.â€Å"The minimum core will support all teachers in developing inclusive approaches to learners with literacy, numeracy and IT needs and raise achievements of learners on their learning programme† LLuk (2007) Obviously I must embed English, numeracy and IT into session planning, bearing in mind that I may well have students as varied in abilities as E1 through to Level 1 or even Level 2. Most of the units I teach are available in E3 or L1, so I will differentiate between the students as to what level they work at As I frequently have a number of foreign students speaking very little English when they join, I must remember to include LA1.3, LA1. 6, LA2. 1 and LA2. 3 & . 4. At the reviews the Functional skills tutors will feed in literacy and numeracy problems and goals to be addressed during the month, these I need to include in my lesson planning eg L needs to develop spelling and pun ctuation skills, so when planning the next lesson, I look to see if I can incorporate something to build on these eg word searches, or reminding him to be careful with punctuation in his writing.The student in the Initial Assessment (A) needs help and support with reading and writing, so a support worker needs to be written into every session plan to help. In many of the units I teach, class participation in discussions are expected and I must express myself clearly LS1 , LS2, LS3, LL1. I must plan my lesson carrying out LR1 & LR2. Embedding numeracy in a non maths lesson can be tricky, but in session (D) researching a flat and tenancy (IT) students had to work out much they would pay out to rent a flat (rent plus deposit etc) and in (E) designed a bedsit, incorporating measurements.Above all when planning a session I must produce a lesson that considers the subject content and criteria, it must be relevant to the students, it must take into consideration, their learning needs and g oals and and help stretch their capabilities. In the new session plan forms we have a section where we can list each students individual needs, and the strategy for helping this. This section concentrates my mind during planning and actual delivery, to remember each students needs and goals. There is also a section for differentiation which again reminds me of each students goals.All the time I am teaching I must not be complacent , but continually improve my practice. This will be done by, talking with students during their review about the months learning, what they feel they have/have not learnt. By asking students to fill in anonymous evaluation forms. Discussions with the class about the units and what they learnt or would like to learn in the future. Listening to my IV’er and her feedback on the students work and on the unit levels, which have passed.Reflecting on my teaching is a very important stage in helping me move my lessons and teaching, forward, it is about bein g more self aware and analysing what happened in my lessons. Schon (1983) suggests â€Å"reflect while you’re doing it† and â€Å"reflect after doing it† I like this straight forward approach. Planning to meet the needs of my learners means I must be continually review my teaching practise, improving on lesson content and find new and different ways of meeting my students needs, raise their self esteem and self worth which in turn helps self regulation and encourages the student to learn in a classroom setting.

Impacts Of The Economic Downturn On Health Economics Essay

Undertaking ) â€Å" Identify and explicate how the economic downswing may impact straight and indirectly on the wellness of people in the UK. Discuss with mention to identify positions on wellness inequalities and socioeconomic position † â€Å" Those who do n't cognize history are destined to reiterate it. † Edmund Burke ( 1729-1797 ) 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Poor wellness affects the lower-classes more significantly and disproportionately than the upper-classes ( Chadwick, 1843 ) . Somewhat before his clip Chadwick concluded the unequal impact of hapless wellness on lower socio-economic groups is evitable. Indeed, Chadwick claimed that he could cut the decease rate in London by a 3rd by bettering the conditions of the lower-classes ( Chadwick, 1843 ) . Figure: Scanned infusion from the original study by Edwin Chadwick on the healthful conditions of the laboring population of Great Britain ( 1843 ) . 1.2 Chadwick ‘s belief in miasma, as the instrument of decease, was incorrect but his decision that the impact of ill-health and mortality on the lower-classes was greater than that of â€Å" upper-classes † was anything but incorrect. In 1844 Engles claimed the disparity was due to the chase of wealth by the upper-classes, the middle class, at the disbursal of the wellness of the lower-classes, the labor, and referred to the phenomenon as â€Å" societal slaying † ( Engles, 1844 ) . 1.3 Since Chadwicks ‘ study in 1843 many others, most notably, the Black Report ( DHSS, 1980 ) , the Whitehead Report ( Whitehead, 1988 ) , the Atchison Report ( 1997 ) and the Marmot Review ( 2010 ) , conclude that those in lower-classes or lower socio-economic groups are more likely to be affected by hapless wellness, and as a effect the labor will see higher mortality which is unjust and wholly evitable ( Bradby, 2009 ) . The purpose of this paper is to place and explicate how the 08/09 economic downswing may impact the wellness of people in the UK with specific mention to social-class and wellness inequalities. 2.0 Social-class and wellness inequalities 2.1 The Registrar General ‘s categorization of social-class, conceived in 1911, was based on business with specific mention to the implied societal position of that business ( Bartley and Blane, 2009 ) . This method of categorization, limited by its stiff contemplation of a structured-hierarchal-unchanging-society, was superseded in 2001 by the National Statistics Socio-economic Classification ( NS-SEC ) , an internationally recognized categorization that takes history of position, income, chances, security, instruction, and liberty and control ( Denny and Early, 2005 ) . 2.2 In using NS-SEC, Marmot ( 2010 ) showed the sum of societal inequality persons experience is comparative to the sum of wealth and power wielded by those single ; the less wealth, power and influence and accordingly the lower social-class the greater the inequality. Graham ( 2007 ) , identified the beginnings of economic and societal inequality are hapless instruction, deficiency of occupation chance, and accordingly hapless income chances, and demonstrated a generational geographic temperament to ill-health and disablement. 2.3 The eventual societal place, money, power, and material wealth acquired in life are non relative to their wellness hazards, ( Marmot, 2010 ) . Jointly the determiners of wellness are rooted in the societal, geographical, environmental, political, and material universe ; which affect the mental and physical wellbeing of persons unevenly. Dahlgren and Whitehead ( 1991 ) clearly describe the determiners of wellness as a multifactorial-socio-economic phenomenon of which the bulk is under the control of those with greater power, see Figure: The chief determiners of wellness ( Beginning: Dahlgren and Whitehead, 1991 ) . below: Figure: The chief determiners of wellness ( Beginning: Dahlgren and Whitehead, 1991 ) . 2.4 The societal inequalities in wellness are described by Bartley et al.. ( 2004 ) as 4 theoretical accounts: 2.4.1 The behavioral theoretical account which advocates the single chooses to damage their ego through their ain hapless picks such as intoxicant maltreatment, drug usage, smoke, and hapless diet doing fleshiness ( Bartley et al.. 2004 ) . 2.4.2 The materialist theoretical account which suggest the quality of your material universe such as your house, the location you live in, and handiness of quality merchandises has an impact on your wellness ( Bartley et al.. 2004 ) . 2.4.3 The psyco-social theoretical account analyses the relationship between the physiological effects of perceived societal unfairness on the human organic structure. High emphasis, deficiency of support, emotional withdrawal, relationships, can consequence harmful biological alterations which manifest in unwellnesss ( Bartley et al.. 2004 ) . 2.4.4 The life class theoretical account, which combines strands from the behavioral, materialist, and psychosocial theoretical account. If you are of a lower social-class, societal mobility is improbable and your material universe is improbable to alter for the better, nor are you behaviours or stressors, all of which have negative cumulative effects that damage wellness but can-not be mitigated by societal capital, ( Bartley et al.. 2004 ) . 2.5 Locker ( 2008 ) describes the incorporate nature of these theoretical accounts as the â€Å" web of causing † . Suggestive of the proposition that no individual theoretical account histories for all causes of ill-health but without uncertainty wellness inequalities manifest in more long-run unwellness for lower-classes, and higher infant mortality rates, non to advert a greater opportunity of coronary bosom diseases, shot, lung malignant neoplastic diseases, self-destructions, and respiratory disease ( Marmot, 2010 ) . 3.0 Recession and Downturns 3.1 The definition of a â€Å" Recession † is widely accepted as two-or-more back-to-back quarters of negative growing. The ONS has recorded eight recessions over the past 55 old ages ; on norm of 1 every 6.8 old ages, Table: Eight recessions between 1956-2009, associated figure of negative growing periods and cumulative impact on GDP. ( Beginning: ONS, 2011 ) refers ( ONS, 2011 ) . Table: Eight recessions between 1956-2009, associated figure of negative growing periods and cumulative impact on GDP. ( Beginning: ONS, 2011 ) . 3.2 Literature suggests the lower socioeconomic category suffer more well in times of recession, although Elliott et Al. ( 2009 ) suggest the longer-term agony and in some respects, the greatest consequence on lower social-classes is from the downswing. The 08/09 recession started in Q2/08 and ended in Q3/09, stand foring six quarters of negative growing and has the greatest cumulative decrease in GDP ( ONS, 2011 ) . Elliott et Al. ( 2009 ) province the length of recession and longer-term impacts of the recession are dissociated. The writers attempt at a graphical representation of Elliott et Al. ‘s premise are seen in below: Figure: Writers graphical representation of Elliott et Al. ‘s premise that the recession and downswing are dissociated 3.4 This representation may propose the consequence of rebalancing is more likely to impact lower social-classes than the recession its ego, given that market forces manipulated by higher social-classes create the environment for a recession, which is rebalanced by cardinal authorities at the disbursal of the lower-classes in the signifier of decreased public disbursement and accordingly a decrease in employment and societal services. 4.0 Social-class and the economic downswing 4.1 Harmonizing to Marmot and Bell ( 2009 ) recessions have greater impact on those of a lower socio-economic place due to their inability to endure a recession. Although, Gerdtham and Ruhm ( 2006 ) , based on an analysis of OECD informations, claimed mortalities rates decline during recessions an analysis of informations obtained from the ONS demonstrates that morality rates as a % of population did non worsen universally over the period of 1956 – 2009 against the mean mortality rate for that period. Harmonizing the the ONS information for the first 5 recessions the mortality rate was higher than norm when considered as a % of population. During the 90/91 recession the mortality rates as a per centum of population was close norm and so declined significantly during the latest recession, which concur with Rhum ( 2005 ) findings, Figure: Mortality rates as a % of population during recession old ages. ( Beginning: ONS 2011 ) refers. Figure: Mortality rates as a % of population during recession old ages. ( Beginning: ONS 2011 ) 4.2 Interestingly the unemployment rate as a per centum of the population when considered against the mean unemployment for the period 1973-2009, was significantly lower in the 73/74 recession and merely reached para at the beginning of the 90/91 recession, Figure: Unemployment rates as a per centum of population during recession old ages refers. Martikainen et Al. ( 2007 ) identified in their survey, mortality rates do non needfully increase during recession old ages, and in fact, grounds suggests the antonym. Specifically, during the last recession mortality rates appear to be above the norm during periods of high unemployment, Figure: Mortality rates as a % of population during recession old ages. ( Beginning: ONS 2011 ) and Figure: Unemployment rates as a per centum of population during recession old ages refer. Figure: Unemployment rates as a per centum of population during recession old ages, ( Beginning: ONS, 2011 ) 4.3 Marmot ( 2010 ) , Elliott et Al. ( 2010 ) , Kondo et Al. ( 2008 ) , conclude the impact on wellness is straight related to social-class, which is important when you consider latest recession. Evidence shows that unemployment by and large rises and with that rise there is besides a rise in the mortality rates ( as a per centum of population ) with the exclusion of the latest recession ( ONS, 2011 ) . 4.4 A quick and soiled statistical reappraisal for the period 1973-2009 of % decrease in GDP, against the % unemployed suggests a tendency for social-class effected during recession see.Table: England and Wales – Population Total, Deaths, Mortality Rates, Unemployment Rates, against recession old ages. below. Table: England and Wales – Population Total, Deaths, Mortality Rates, Unemployment Rates, against recession old ages. 4.5 Using the 73/74 and 75 recessions as a benchmark and presuming the social-class affected by the recession contributed to the loss of GDP, it is apparent that the undermentioned recessions affected different social-classes accepting mean net incomes applies to social-class. 4.6 The 80/81 recession saw more people unemployed but less of an impact on GDP, which implies those unemployed contributed otherwise to GDP coevals proposing lower paid workers, lending less to the coevals of GDP were unemployed, this tendency is more apparent in the 90/91 recession. However, the 08/09 recession appears different the ratio of unemployed to the decrease in GPD is similar to that of the 73/74 and 75 recessions. 4.7 Vaitilingam ( 2009 ) suggested the 08/09 recession would impact the in-between category and given the important addition in loss of GDP in relation to the figure of unemployed is implicative of a more flush worker going unemployed. 4.8 In kernel the information suggest the greater the decrease in GDP relation to the rate of unemployment the different category affected by the recession. Therefore, in every instance other than the 08/09 recession the per centum of unemployed has been greater than the decrease in GDP. This suggests that lower category are proportionately more instantly affected by the Recession than higher categories. In the instance of the 08/09 recession, the decrease in GDP is greater than the rate of unemployment proposing a high socio economic category will be instantly affected by the recession, which is really unusual for the UK. How that manifest down the societal strata is yet to be observed. 5.0 Decision 5.1 It is widely accepted that hapless wellness affects lower social-classes more significantly and disproportionally and that it is evitable, ( Marmot, 2010 ; Bradby 2009 ) . Occupation entirely, as step of social-class in out dated and does non take history of the diverse societal stratification seen in modern society where position, income, chances, security, instruction, and liberty and control, vary well throughout occupational sets ( Bartley and Blane, 2009 ; Denny and Early, 2005 ) . 5.2 Marmot ( 2010 ) and Graham ( 2007 ) showed the less wealth, power and influence and the lower social-class the greater wellness inequality. This wellness in equality Graham ( 2007 ) , and Dahlgren and Whitehead ( 1991 ) claim is associated with hapless instruction, deficiency of occupation chance and hapless income chances. The behavioral, stuff, psychosocial and life class theoretical accounts, discussed by Bartley et al.. ( 2004 ) and Lockers ( 2008 ) â€Å" web of causing † by definition place the determiners of wellness are rooted in the societal, geographical, environmental, political, and material universe. 5.3 The clear premise by Elliott et Al ( 2009 ) and Marmot and Bell ( 2009 ) that recessions doing greater and more well longer enduring to those of lower socio-economic category is mostly without challenge. The effects of economic rebalancing on lower social-classes is less good understood, nor are the longer term effects of the downswing in the signifier of decreased public disbursement and accordingly a decrease in employment and societal services that are to a great extent relied upon. Does policy alteration better conditions for lower social-classes or does it amplify the effects of an already unequal system. 5.4 Gerdtham and Ruhm ( 2006 ) show there is grounds of displacements in mortality rates around recessions although the overall consequence of recession and unemployment on longer term mortality rates is less clear. If, as Marmot ( 2010 ) , Elliott et Al. ( 2010 ) , and Kondo et Al. ( 2008 ) , claim the impact on wellness is straight related to social-class, and if one can pull the decision that different social-classes suffer otherwise during recessions so Vaitilingam ( 2009 ) 08/09 middle-class recession should uncover, as the longer term effects of the downswing come to an terminal, that there is no noticeable addition in preventable unwellnesss and deceases amongst the most vulnerable. The consequence on the lower social-classes may non be as apparent this clip unit of ammunition albeit strictly by opportunity. 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